Main Forms
Drug analogues and other synthetic drugs have been present in Australia and overseas since at least the mid-2000s. Analogues available within the illicit drug market are variants of a parent compound which is usually a prohibited or scheduled drug. These substances are typically marketed as ‘legal highs’14 and used as substitutes for illicit drugs such as methylamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA). In recent years, an analogue drug market has been established as users have increasingly sought out specific analogues rather than using them as substitutes.
A wide range of analogue and other synthetic drugs are available to users. Many of these substances are sourced from online ‘legal high’ stores, legitimate fine chemical suppliers and sites selling ‘research chemicals’. In some countries illicit cannabimimetics are marketed as ‘herbal smoking blends’; herbal incense and as ‘plant foods’ (TGA 2011).
A review of overseas online legal high stores identified up to 500 different analogue drugs being advertised. Analogues are frequently marketed as being natural and legal and are perceived by many users to be less harmful than illicit drugs. As many of these substances are novel, there is limited research or knowledge about the short or long-term health consequences of use, the risk of dependence, possible adverse effects of use in combination with other drugs, or potential fatal dosage levels.
In an attempt to circumvent legislative and regulatory measures, many of these substances are marketed under the guise of other products not intended for human consumption, such as bath salts, plant food, incense and room deodorisers. Further, to avoid detection, packaging may not accurately reflect the ingredients leaving users unaware of the true ingredients within. Even when ingredients are correctly listed, users may remain unaware of the related implications and effects of use.
Two groups of analogues and other synthetic drugs that have received considerable public attention during 2010–11 are cannabimimetics (which mimic cannabinoids) and cathinones, in particular 4-methylmethcathinone. This section covers these two groups in more detail.
Cannabimimetics
Cannabimimetics, also referred to as synthetic cannabinoids15, are synthetic chemicals which mimic the effects of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—the principal psychoactive component of the illicit drug cannabis. Analysis in a number of European countries identified a large number of chemicals which could be classed as cannabimimetics. While some cannabimimetics share a chemical structure similar to THC, the vast majority of identified to date have no structural relationship to THC (EMCDDA 2011d). With the exception of a small number of substances which have very limited legitimate uses, the vast majority of identified substances have no legitimate industrial, scientific or medicinal uses.
Cannabimimeticsthat have been used for medicinal purposes and are scheduled within the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Poisons (SUSMP) are:
- Rimonabant (currently in Schedule 4): A selective CB1 receptor antagonist historically used to treat obesity, but was withdrawn from the market due to severe side effects
- Nabilone (currently in Schedule 8): A synthetic cannabinoid used for treatment of anorexia and for its antiemetic effects; its chemical structure is closely related to THC
- Dronabinol (currently in Schedule 8 for therapeutic use): Synthetically produced pure THC used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and pain patients (TGA 2011).
Illicit cannabimimetics, commonly known as synthetic cannabis, consist of a combination of neutral plant materials, similar in appearance to cannabis, which have been sprayed with one or more synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabis is best known by the brand names ‘Kronic’, ‘Northern Lights’, ‘Spice’, ‘Kaos’, ‘Voodoo’ and ‘Mango’ (NSW Health 2011b; ACT Health 2011).
As packaging of synthetic cannabisrarely identifies the ingredients from which the substance is formulated (in particular the synthetic cannabinoid component), people dealing in synthetic cannabispreparations may be hindered in their ability to determine the legal status of the product. This potentially causes legal issues for importers, distributors, retailers and consumers (TGA 2011).
Synthetic cannabis, like natural cannabis, can cause memory and thinking impairment in small doses. Short-term effects from consuming synthetic cannabis can include fatigue, headaches, disorientation, hallucinations, high blood pressure, tachycardia, paranoia, agitation, restlessness, panic attacks, anxiety and depression (WADAA 2011). Heavy and regular use may cause hallucinations, confusion, anxiety, depression, paranoia, psychosis and heart palpitations (ACT Health 2011).
As synthetic cannabisis a manufactured substance, there can be considerable variety and quantity of substances present, resulting in unpredictability in the effects of use (NSW Health 2011b).
4-MMC (4-Methylmethcathinone)
An analogue which has received significant media and law enforcement attention is 4-methylmethcathinone (also known as 4-MMC or mephedrone). 4-MMC is a synthetic stimulant and an analogue of the drug methcathinone. It is known to produce central nervous system stimulation, psychoactivity and hallucinations (DEA 2011a). In Australia, there are no legal uses for 4-MMC and it is listed as a prohibited import under Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 and is a Border Controlled Drug under Section 314.4 (2) of the Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995.
Other common names for 4-MMC include; meph, meow, miaow-miaow, m-cat, plant food, drone, bubbles and kitty cat. The most common form is an off-white or yellowish powder and it is also available in tablet or capsule form. The powder can be snorted or swallowed in bombs (wraps of paper). There has been limited reporting of injection as a form of administration of the drug (Sindicich & Burns 2011; ADF 2011d).
Users report that 4-MMC produces a similar experience to drugs such as amphetamines, ecstasy or cocaine. Reported effects include euphoria, increased energy and alertness, loss of appetite, dilated pupils, tremors or convulsions, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia. The long-term effects of 4-MMC are difficult to identify due to limited research in this area (ADF 2011d).
International Trends
In 2011, products containing new psychoactive substances became available in many parts of the world, including the Americas, the Middle East, Oceania and parts of Asia. Many countries are now facing the challenge of identifying an ever‑increasing range of substances in a rapidly changing market (EMCDDA 2011a).
In 2010, the US Drug Enforcement Agency reported that an estimated 2 977 samples of synthetic cannabinoids were submitted to State and local forensic laboratories in the US. This was a considerable increase from the estimated 15 synthetic cannabinoid samples identified during 2009. In 2010, nearly two-thirds of these samples were identified as JWH-01816 (63 per cent) and about one-quarter as either JWH-25017 (14 per cent) or JWH-07318 (9 per cent) (DEA 2011d).
Europe continues to see an increase in new synthetic substances with a total of 41 new synthetic psychoactive substances reported to the European Early Warning System in 2010 (Europol 2011). Of the 41 new psychoactive substances identified in 2010, 15 were synthetic cathinones and 11 were synthetic cannabinoids(EMCDDA 2011a; Europol 2011)
The 2010–11 British Crime Survey of UK residents reported that respondents aged 16–24 years of age had the highest rates of synthetic cannabinoids use. Among 16–59 year olds, the proportion of respondents reporting 4-MMC use was equal to the proportion reporting ecstasy use (1.4 per cent) and in the 16–24 years age group, the proportion was equal to powder cocaine use (4.4 per cent) (Smith & Flatley 2011). An online survey targeting club-goers in the UK found that 4-MMC was the fourth most commonly used drug (after cannabis, ecstasy and cocaine) among the 2 295 respondents (EMCDDA 2010).
In 2010–11, the increasing variety and expanding market in analogues saw many countries—including Australia—take steps to prohibit their importation, sale and use. In some countries, including the US and New Zealand, synthetic cannabinoids have been temporarily categorised as controlled substances as these governments seek to appropriately amend legislation to ensure that all current and emerging cannabimimetics are captured.
As of December 2010, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) banned five synthetic cannabinoids by placing them in Schedule I under the Controlled Substances Act, which is for substances considered to have a high potential for abuse and no known medical benefits. This ban will continue for a year, making it illegal to possess or sell products that contain synthetic cannabinoids and allowing the DEA time to gather information regarding these five synthetic cannabinoids (DEA 2011b).
In 2011, the New Zealand Government approved amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, creating a new mechanism to place a temporary ban on unregulated substances of concern. This new mechanism enabled the New Zealand Minister for Health to place a 12-month ban on any current or emerging synthetic cannabinoids. The New Zealand Government intends to implement recommendations from the New Zealand Law Commission that reverse the onus of proof, requiring industry to prove its products are safe (NZ Government 2011).
In response to potential health concerns, Austria, Germany, France, Luxembourg, Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Estonia have taken legal action to ban or otherwise control synthetic cannabis products and related compounds. In December 2010, while mephedrone was banned in the countries of the EU it is still available in illicit drug markets (UNODC 2011a).
Domestic Market Indicators
In 2011, the Australian Government announced the addition of eight synthetic cannabis compounds to Schedule 9 of the SUSMP. The eight synthetic cannabis compounds were scheduled on the basis that they are used for the purpose of obtaining a psychoactive effect, may be dependence producing, have no legitimate therapeutic uses and have documented harmful effects which may be significant in some individuals (TGA 2011). Several synthetic cannabis compounds were added to state and territory legislation during 2010–11 (see State and territory legislative amendments and initiatives chapter).
4–MMC is a prohibited import under the Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations Act 1956 and is a Border Controlled Drug under the Commonwelth Criminal Code Act 1995. On 9 April 2011, 4–MMC became a prescribed substance under the Criminal Code Regulations Act 2002.
The extent of synthetic cannabis use among the general population in Australia is currently unknown.
According to a 2010 study of regular ecstasy users, 16 per cent of respondents reported recent use (in the last 6 months) of 4MMC, while 18 per cent reported in lifetime use. Recent 4–MMC use was reported primarily in Tasmania and Victoria. Snorting, followed by swallowing, was the most common method of administration, with minimal reporting of smoking and injecting 4MMC (Sindicich & Burns 2011). Early findings from the 2011 study indicate a small decline in recent use, with only13 per cent reporting recent use of 4-MMC (NDARC 2011d).
Price
Law enforcement price data for synthetic cannabis and 4-MMC is limited. In Tasmania in 2010–11, a cap of 4-MMC ranged between $15 and $50. The price of one gram of synthetic cannabis leaf in Queensland ranged between $20 and $30.
